This book provides the first comprehensive overview of the techniques and materials used in a range of monumental paintings from the Late Classical to the Graeco-Roman period reflecting the Hellenistic culture.
Information is drawn from scientific technical studies, archaeological and art-historical documents and the surviving texts of ancient writers such as Theophrastus (end of the fourth century BC), Vitruvius (first century BC), and Pliny (first century AD). Based primarily on the technical examination and analyses of wall paintings, painted architectural elements and marble monuments, the scientific study of materials provides information on the chemical composition of the plasters, the nature of pigments and their microstructure and identifies patterns of trade and methods of manufacture (if synthesised). It further identifies the chemical and physical properties of binding media employed and colour changes in paint layers induced by the alteration of the painting constituent materials and/or external factors.
The results suggest a highly developed and cosmopolitan culture, encompassing the entire Mediterranean region and beyond, from the mountains of Macedonia to the deserts of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Eurasian Plateau, throughout which ideas and goods flowed freely.
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations used in this book
Introduction
Chronological and geographical significance
Contribution made by this study
Ancient literary sources
Historical background
Overview of the iconography and style of painting between the fourth and the first century BC
Ancient painting techniques
Introduction to ancient painting techniques and terminology
Fresco terminology
Secco terminology
Plaster/wall preparation
Preparatory drawing
Overview of ancient painting techniques
Egyptian painted monuments
Bronze Age paintings
Etruscan paintings
Painted marbles of the Classical period
Roman wall paintings
Scientific methodology for the study of painting techniques and materials
Introduction
Scientific examination and analysis
Non-invasive methods for in-situ examination and recording of paintings
Sampling
Optical, chemical and instrumental methods for the examination and analysis of microsamples
Data collection and interpretation
Late Classical and Hellenistic painting techniques and materials
Introduction
Painting techniques
Supports and substrates for painting
Substrates for secco painting
Substrates for fresco technique (tectorium)
Organic binding medium
Preparatory drawing
Pigments and colorants
Introduction
Synthetic inorganic pigments
Blue pigments
White pigments
Natural inorganic pigments
Green pigments
Red pigments
Yellow pigments
White pigments
Natural organic pigments
Red pigments
White pigments
Black pigments
Metal foils
Gilding
Summary of findings
Production of Egyptian blue
Introduction
Technology
Ancient formulae
Modern studies
Hellenistic and Roman Egyptian blue pigment pellets: technical study
Methodology
Results
Reproduction of Egyptian blue: laboratory trials
Methodology
Results
Interpretation and discussion
Proposals for further research
Pigment alteration and colour changes in Hellenistic painting
Introduction
Pigment alteration in wall paintings
Alteration of copper-based pigments
Alteration of lead pigments
Alteration of cinnabar
Results of the study
Egyptian blue: dissolution of the glass phase
Green paint: discoloration to yellow
Gum arabic: discoloration
Blue paint: discoloration to green
Discussion
Intercultural links and artistic transmissions
Style and manner of Hellenistic painting
Hellenistic pigments and colorants
Conservation implications and further research
Study of the mechanisms and kinetics of the degradation of painting materials
Conclusion
Cultural trends and trade in materials
Appendix 1 Technical studies of late Classical and Hellenistic paintings
Appendix 2 List of samples
Appendix 3 Optical properties of crystals considered for the identification of pigments
Appendix 4 Egyptian blue: SEM-WDS results
Appendix 5 Experimental trials for the production of Egyptian blue
Notes
Bibliography
Index
